CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY WASHINGTON IS- 0- C-' rues- 209ok -THE ID I Jt E C T 0 A OFFICE OF 25 APR 9 Brr 2 onomat viis cind.T MEMORANDUM FOR: 7he Honorable J. Edgar Hoover tor, Federal Bureau of Livest Di SUBJECT 2 rainwashing 7ne attached study on brainwashing was prepared by my nse to the increasingly acute interest In the staff In respo the Intelligence and security componenti subject throughout enL I feel you will find It well worth y of the Goverrm 2 our personal attention. It represents the thinking of leading p' chologists, psychiatrists and intelligence specialists, ba-se-d- In turn on interviews with many Individuals who have had 7. personal experience with Communist brainwashing, and on extensive reeearch and testing. While Individual isp6ci2alists bold divergent views on various aspects of this- mosf complex siubject, I believe the study reflects a synthesis of mtjoriq'@@ expert opinion. I will, of course, appreciate any com-menid on It that you or your staff may have. 1 4 2 Director Sun INCLO C 600 7f.- Atta&taent.- IN l@EXED-61, CSD 4 X MAY od 6@'7' 1 r -7:' '71 power mom* 40 9"Y "Mxkeit TAOTA v WPX TWOO'Ecq rwr T T xammv is= 7rdEm "We know now that men can be mad to do exilctly any-thing ...... It's all a qmstion of finding the right means. If onlv ve take enough trouble and go sufficiently slowly,, we can nnk him kill his aged parents and eat then in a stev.w (Jules Romains. VERDUN. A2.A. Knopf, 1939., P. 156.) TUs study should not be read as representing the synthesis in the Centrul Intelligence Agency on the subject of br-ainwasbin . Several working groups in CIA axe activelv concerned with the subject., and this paper re8flects the progress so far me4e by only one of those groups. It in not a final report. OONTCNTS Paw PORCWCOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tv",)DUCTTON Scope and Ain 0 o o o General orientation . * o o o * 2 2 OF = PFaBEim . . 0 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 3 CormL 0 0 * & 0 . . 0 . 10 The suspect . . . . e . . . . . 10 The Accumlation of Evidence . . . . . . . . . fte Arrest Prmed=e . . . . . . 2. . . . 13 2he Detention Prison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 The Regimn Within the Detention Prison 15 The ltffects of the pegimn in the isolation Ce3 I 18 other Aspects of the isolation Resdue . . . . . . . . . 23 fte Interrogator . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. . 26 rrogatim . . . . 27 Press s Applied by the Interrogator . . . . . . . . . 34 The *ftiendly Appro"h" 3T 39 The Oaurse of tbe Interrvosti5on . . . . . . . . . The Imterrogator's Point of Viev and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %uO% t.- 4b 4i 8 ri 43 431 FCMWDRD Brainvashin , as a term, was originated by a reporter vho van interviewing Chinese refugees. it has gained world- wide currency and has been applied to a wide range of tech- niquea--mass education of a Cmmmigitic country or citizens., 2 thoughtcontrol in Soviet and sate" ite countries, techniques of eliciting informtion,, as vell as the intensive i=U- viAi,Alized re-education of beliefs of a few selected individuals. Such uncritical use of the term has done nothing to reduce the impact on the public and officialdm generally of the co2nfessions of such men as CarAin&l MindSZenty and especially of the results of treatment of prisoners-of-var by the Chinese Coommists. The teru itself is anxiety producing. Its connotation of special oriental knowledge of drugs, hypnosis, and other exotic and devious means of controlling hi---n behavior creates credulity a the uninformed. A more prosaic view is that the techniques used in producing confessions and *conversions" am readily understandable in terms of ordinary psychological principles and have been used., especially by police states,, for centuries. It is now clear that Russian methods of obtaini information and confessions bglye developed by XYD and earlier versions of this orgmization over the eenturies, but especially during the Past 35 years of systematic effort to elicit information or confessions. The Chinese have their own tradition of tolera2nce for brutality. They am influenced by the Russians., but place more emphasis on converting the prisoner to Ccom=istic beliefs, at times behaving as typical "eager- beaver" revolutionaries. In am., the methods are police methods developed by trial and error to suit the needs of the police state. No scientists., no drugs, no hypnosis,2, no new psychologicel principles have as yet been involved. Early in the rev ev of the diverse information catalogued under the term "brainvashing", even in serious scientific articles,, it became evident there vils a need for better coordingl- ition of the vork on this topic and more work d:Lrected at kipee2-ific 'problems and issues. It vas., therefore concluded that this limited effort vas best devoted to (1) clarifying the concepts connoted by the term brainvashing; (2) relating these to svc'n basic psychological principles as learning, perception., and notivation; and (3) specifically discussing the brainvashe1d person as an involuntarily re-educated person. A3.1 people are being re-.educated continuously. Nev information changes one"s beliefs. 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Up to nov., po3.iee 2 methods developed by trial and error have not fully exploited the psychological basis for results thus far obtained; nor have all restraints in treatment of prisoners been cast aside. Dote,, too., that the restmints referred to need not concern direct physical torture. It is not necessary to use direct physical means to reduc2e a person to a state where involuntary re-education cm take place. Brainwashing conceived as inrolxmtoxy re-education., them., represents one extreme of a continuum of treatment by, and resistance to.,captors. At the other end of this scale is active voluntary collaboration with the en2emy. In between a-re varying degrees of brutality and subtlety of treatment and degrees of resistance thereto. Clearly., policies concerning treatment of repatriated captives will depend on where the ind:LvidvALl Is placed on this scale. At one end., there is the legal jurisdiction for treason; at the other., 6 psychiatric treatment. The view presented herein has several implications. First,, the public should be given information which will dispel th@.- iwwtery vhi appears to have surrounded the concept of brainvathing. Second,, them re ible for establishing policy for returned prisoners bwft as a first problem the determination vhere an the scale between invvlmt=7 re-edwmtion and voluntary collaboration a particular indiridual stands. Third, the hmm organism need not be a complete pavn of his environment until extz em conditions are created. Van is &"ptive., and v:Lth mr,,mp kawledge of vbat to expect f2rm his captors and anunderstanding of his own reactions,, be caa develop memo of resisting. Be can be helped in this by 'prior knowledge of the treatment he can expect and his own ,reactions to it. Fourth, the truly brainvasked is a psychiatric,, not a La&&! D.-LG,-Wlam. xi& treatment should be therapeutic., not Ipunitive. Recovery can be anticipated since the bminvwphed person placed in his normal environment vi3.1 tend to revert to his prior beliefs. Fifth brainvashing can be successftl3.y acccopliebed on 7 the basis of present knowledge by anyone sufficienuv t ,in+.er-es+.ed in acquiring an vaderstanding of -the psychological principles iwrolved. Sixth., it is possible that Uw best long range defense against br@@hing is to aske It politically diindyantageous for a comtrr to permit its Whi3.e this paper focuses its attention an brainvashing as defined., the political nature of its effects it ,necessary to consider the effects of militaz7 and otbez 2 i .policy. Where certain possibi3.ities occur naturally in the psychological context,, they ex* mationed. The major purpose., bovever., Is to discuss 'brainvashing frou a psy- chological point of view. It is not pmsumed that this v,iev takes into aceo=t all the factors needed i2n determi- ning policy. *I Ci. Oak 1-h IL+ ob 2 e C2 Pt 2 it -t c a IOC 0 2 a r& 0 lot 0 H In 6 H intellectual orgmaization of the indivi&-i personality has eamate& from maiversities and other private research insti- tutions &wing the past decade. Appropriate selections from this material have been applied to understanding brainvasbivk General Orientation 2 This study has been written as a general analysis of the available material. It. is recogilized that agencies engaged in intelligence collection have utxique operational vulner- abilities in dealing with Soviet interrogation and brain- washing. Individ-ml forced2 to confess to having engaged in espionage or sabotage embarrass national policy planners. While these problems am recognized,, no attempt has been made in this study to provide specific practical guidance. This study is written frm the viewpoint of professional psychology. As a systematic approach.. this ha2s not been done before, although @ previous analyses have,, of course., md sow use of psychological ideas. The present approach attempts to =Lke fall use of current psychological principles in explaining the process of b It is reasonable to expect that the Soviets will conti8nue to refine their wthods,, and that we shall continue to secure more kzbovledge about the imbjept. There should., therefore., be periodic reappraisals of bminv&shing in the future. 2 STATDMNT OF MM PROBL10( As ve shall shw lat4wr in tklis- chapter,, tb& tem *brain@- vashine has a very useful meaning from the standpoint of vbat goes on inside the person vho is brainvasbed. If the pzoces had be= vieved in this light from the beginning., no doubt ve would by now have achieved a greater and more widespread uztder- standing of it. Actmlly., it has not been confronted in so simple a menwr as that. It has been used by the Soviets and the Chinese on qulte different, kinds of peop2le and for quite a variety of sons. It has bad a wide range of consequences., scm intended and perhaps wm unintended. It has faced intelligence,, military and political leaders with a remrkably wide range of problems with vhich each such group had to cope. A3.1 2these variations of objectives., con- sequences,, and problems have a&& for confusion in our efforts to understand vbat vas really going on. WesUz,a usage of the tezu brainvashing has caused it to be applied time to time to each of the following sitmtions: 3 (1) IndiTidual or group indoctrination of the "maseau behind the Iron Curt&:Ln. (2) Jadoctrination of key personnel inside Commint- controlled countries to maintain their political reliability. (3) Mb-- interrolptim PrOee" bY vblich P*Gitiv'& inforiation of intellivnee valm is obtained frm iwuvid=ls @4) aroup indoctrination of prisoners-of-var. Begifts an &tteap2t to obtain defections and dewralize milit4uT persowmi, this process appears to bave been used as a selective device to ascertain vhich "progressives' or NopWrtunists' might subsequentlv be amenable to a more int,owi" process as defined in (5) be3.ov. (5) The intensive indiridml process during vhich individual are deprived of their critical faculties and subsequmtly come to believe as true that vtlich., prior to the 'brainvaahing., they would have designated " false. fte fact that the tezu 2"brainvashing" has been applied to so =my situatime has caused a great deal of confusion in Utt" &C&ra 1*,4n& t- I more about, It and in attaxptixtg to develop sound praet ices and policies for coping vith it. As ve $ball ex plain more2 fuuy In this study., ve find the term *brain vasb±W to be =us umful vton It is applied strictly to denote the lnvoL!E!lg re-education of an individual vhich a is developed in the perceptual and intellectual o@rgluization of his personality so that be will: Accept as true certain ideologesa principles vblieh h@-- voula not have accepted as true prior to the ch&W, aztd/or (2) Admit that certain events have a true and f&ctwa basis VMCK be VCV2ld not have admitted foz@r3,v. These false b&li*fs my be t itOrY- LI fact, there :Ls good reason to believe that the false beliefs resulting frm brainvashing vill break dovu slxmtaneouslv vhm the individml has been removed for a period of time frc2a the oppmesive controls. It should be noted that brainvashing., so defined, does not amphagize ftat happens to the individualp but vbat happens vithin him. Mie change represents a mie or less complete ze-education of his value-Vat4m. nis cb&ngo is brovot &bout in & riOdlY controlled Ouviro=wnt using pressures desigwd to create and sharmn internal conflict vithin the individual. Mw imUv:Ld=Ll is forced to resort to problem-solving be- b&v2ior., and the net effect is the brainvasbed state. Wo al-n4t&neous processes am present. Mm first is character:Lzed by a progressive deterioration and demobilization of the individuallser:Ltical and Judging capacities. I,& & true sense the lnd:Lvidml loses all sense 9of perffpective. The second PRMCBB is the learning of beliefs he vould previoun4 have 5 rejected., as he seeks to gain some structure for his ex ling ,personality. The criteria of success of brainwashing am: (1) fte observed conviction and sincerity viiit which the individnal expreefts his changed icleoloa and beliefs concerning palpable events. (2) The length of time his changed beliefs am maintained after the individual has been removed from the control environment. (3) The amount of surprise and confusion that accomqxlnies his "discovery" that he has been brain- 2 washed during his subsequent recovery. Indoctrination., and even education, can lead to false beliefs. These processes are most effective when the in- diTiduLl has gap* in his knowledge.. or his imd ratanding of the meaning of certain events is sufficiently tenuous that he ha2s little difficulty in accepting a new and different interpretation. Brainvashing., however,, involves the re- education of veU-esUbliabed beliefs; and implies that the Individual resisted the re-education. It is this very resistance with its concomitant internal confli2ctj, we main- tain., which is the very core of brainwashing. In the process of securing information of inte3.lige=e value., the procedures used by the Commists, although admittedly harsh,, do not appear to differ subStA3nt-i gkl I frOM those customarily used in eliciting military information. The systematic ion of captives does not appear to be a major objoctive. An underst4Lnding of brainwashing is important in several contexts, among which are the fol3.oving: (1) intelligence might be more fully protected if military and other personnel subject to capture could understand brainvashing and could be trained as well an possible to cope 2with it. (2) Dealing properly with brainvashed individuals depends heavily on understanding their condition. For the truly brainwashed, psychiatric treatment in In order; for the deliberate defector, legal processes axe appropriate. (3) Mm prope@2pnda-valut of false confessions has been gr"t., and the fear-prodneing impact of "brain- vashine in the public -inA is a matter worth considerable concern. Public understanding of the process sboul& belp considerably. 7 (4) A clear understanding of the process is important if governmental agencies axe to @'k rap:L4L progress toward further research an(I understanding, od to db'ml" emaistent policies to n"t the pmbllm of br&Lmva"ing. lb,eh of these o'bjeeti"s of greater im rgtanding is ImPOrtAzt- The propagw0a-,ralm of false confessions ani the P"blic 82zi'OtY concerning br&im"hing locu,, howyer, as mjor Preoccupations. Statements of brainvashed individuals have been a abarp-edeed tool in the comwnint ympa@pndgl iit. Everything frcn the pa-ges of the b2rainvusbed *old re. lUt:LOD&ries' in the late '30's to the Korean gem vaeam admissions has adranced the Soviet strategy line. possibly One Of the greatest advantages for the Coommisto in the par East has been to lover Cauemian prestige. Another and ev 2 more leffeftite ProPaganft goal may be the creation of a oute of fear vithu the populace of vestern-bloc nations. The c=czl;,L. oJ-6* bi-slww-ushing is frightening. Mothers of wnsp vho So into militu7 "rviee against the S2oriets or Minese,, wast concern themselves v:Lth the fact.. not only that their sms my be kil2ed or vowided, but that their mntal procemms my be distorted if they are captured. ihst as knoviedge that the Soviets have thermonuclear veapons has dam 6 .pened the national feeling of security., so brainvashing.bas created the belief that our oppommtsrwm mysteriously formidable. fte "man-in-the-streeto is not so reamd frca pre-scientific 8 C beliefs that suth processes as brainwashing fail to arouse emotions bordering on superstitions ave. We turn now to a more detailed explamtion of @hwt vbat. happens to the mind and body of the demoralized and dis- orgolnized perso2n vbo can properly be described as brain- vashed,, and to a consideration of how this allte c= be brought about. We obf-11 describe the general processes involved in changing the behavior and the beliefs of an individual vbm his envirmmnt can be fully emtrolled. 2 These processes am complex and they involve the basic principles of lea=ing, perception, motivation,, and physio- logical deprivation. Implications of these findings for policy and practice in various areas will not be spelled out in detail. Some such implications., of course., vould need to be Integr2ated vi-t,h other t,@o=iderations in arriving at a final policy. Some,, on the other bond,, appear to point overwhelmingly tov4Lrd certain specific policies and practices. For emnpie., the treatment of brainwashed repatriates should clearly be supportive rather th0an punitive. This study should provide useful guidance and helpful points of viev in a number of important areas. COMMMST CONTROL TECEINIQMS Ullaerstanding brainvashing as a phenomenon a phenomenon vhich culminates in a false confession, delivered vith conviction and humility, to antisocial intent and specific criminal acts -- requires both a 2knovledge Of Comminist control techniques and an analysis of their impact Upon the 12ormuLl personality. This section describes the battery Or Pressures applied to the prisoner and his behavioral reactions to these control pressures. In the fOllOving section an attempt is neae to analyze the psycho- logic&2 impact of these assaults upon the personality during the course of the brainvashing. The Suspect Those vho fall under the suspicion or the KVD usually have acme reason for exciting its suspicion. Although the suspect nay not knov vby be is suspected, th2e MVD has some reason for singling him out. Because or the broad nature of Soviet lave,, and the free na=er in vhich the MD can interpret these,, any "ouspeetn h&g Co=itt" BOW "crim agilizkst the state" as the MVD defines the term. The implications of this statement are significant. In 0 a nation In vhich the state ovus all property, vbere everyme 10 rL vorks ror the state., and vhere only approv d opinions mq be held, a person vho has accidentallv broken or lost some of the "people's property",, vho has made a mistake., who has not worked bard enough, vho Ms talked to a roreigner, or vbo has merely express2ed vbat he inferred was an i=ocent opinion,, may be ipso facto guilty of a -crime aga4nst the state." In practice,, this mean that almost anyone vithin the Soviet Uaion may be suspected by the MVD at any time,, and that wbm- ever be is suspected the MVD is always able to assign a specific reason for its suspicions. The Accumulatioa of Eridence According to Conamist ideology, no one may be arrested =less there is evidence that be is a criminal. According to the practice of the MVD this man that vhen an i=Uvidml falls under the suspicion or an mm officer2.. this officer ut3 accmmmlate "evidence" that the individual is & "Criminal" and take this evidence to the state Prosecutor, vho on then issue a warrant berore the arrest can be carried out. The investigating officer accuralates evidence shoving that the victim bad & reason to be 7& criminal (i.0-P that he was a member of a suspect group) by accuwAlatIng the statements Or $pies and lnf*rumts vith regard to him., if this evidence is not sufficient to satisfy the officer he places 3-1 the suspect and his frienda and associates under surveillmln These friends and associates may be arrested and held for interrogation in order to supply eridence against the suspect, the reason for their arrest being that they are associates of a suspect.. and therefore suspect themselves. 2 Covert surveill&" e and the arrest of associates are carried out carefully., but they cannot alwye be concealed from the suspect. He may become avam of it or his friend may tell him. As he becomes a marked mAn in the eyes of his friends., they begin to avoid him. Their demeanor someti2mes indicates to his that he is under suspicion. The knowledge that he vill be arrested,, without knmledge of when this will occur., obviously creates anxiety in the intended victim. Although XVD officers km= about the psychological effect which surveillolm e has upon 2 suspect$., and make use of it, they probably do not u" it with the calculated mmii* that the victim sometimes supposes. The poorly concealed surv illmce and the arrest of friends and associates., followed by an indefinite period before the arrest of the -,ain suspect., are not neces5sarily stW maneuvers to frighten the victim. They are often evidences of rather slow and cluu7 police activities. YARberi of the MD compete with each other in trying to turn up suspects and sec their conviction. To a certau 10 extent,, off ieers are judged by the muiber of arrests vtlich they obtain. Since Constmist theory demakds that no perwm be arrested excey v it is clear that he is a criminal, office.L vho arrest mn vho must later be released are subject to censure. They have made a mistak , becau2se they have arrested a man vho is not a criminal. The c=sequmms are important from the point of viev of the victim. In effect, any -ri vho is arrested is automatically in the position of being guilty. Anyone arrested by the M must know that in the ey" of the Soviet state,, and in the eyes 2 of those vbo have arrested his,, he is a 'crimin 1". Mw only question to be settled after the arrest in the extent of his criminal activity and the precise nature of his crimes. The officers in charge of his case,, both those vho have nade the arrest and those vho will carry out the interrogation, have 2 a personal interest in seeing that the arrested man oak a a prmp and extensive confession, for their own reputations are at stak . The Arrest ProcedvLre According to Cr-inist theory., men should be arrested in such mu2ner as not to cause then embarrassment, and the police 5 should carry out arrests in a maimer vhich does not mnduly disturb the population. For more tholn tventy years it has been 13 the practice of the Russian State Police to seize their suspects in the sidd3.e of the night. The "addnigbt Imock on the door" has become a standard episode in fiction about Russia. The police are well aware of the fact that the intended victia,, forewarned by his previous surve"'A- 2e and the changing attitude of his friends., is further terrified by the thought that be my be avakened from his sleep almost any night and tairen away. It is customary for the arresting officer to be accooqxinied by several other men. Be usually reads to the prisoner the arrest warrant i2f there is one. It does not., of course, specify the details of the crimes mmitted. The prisoner Is then taken prcuptly-to a detention prison. The Detention Prison In most of the large cities of the Soviet thion the MD operates detention prisons. 2bese prisons contain only perwma under "invest2igation",, whose cases have not yet been sett3.ed. 7he most modern of these prisms are separate inatitatims., well built and spotlessly clean. In addition to the cells for the prisoners,, they contain offices for the XYD units,, rooms in which interrogations are carried out.,5 and other rooms., usually in the basement,, in which prisoners are executed when such Punishment is decided qpm. Mwre are attached medical facilities, and room for the cam of the sick detainees. An exercise yard is a standard facility. The typical cell is a =all cubicle., about 10 feet long by 6 feet wide,, containing a single bunk and a slop jar. It usually has no other furnishings. Its vaus are barren., and it is lighted by a single electric lamp in the ceiling. One wall usually contains a smell window above eye level, frcm whic2h the prism r can see nothing of his outside environment. The door contains a peephole through which the guard in the corridor outside my observe the prisoner at will without the prisoner's knowledge. Such typical cells will not., of course, be found in all prisons and especially not in those which are old or impr2ovised, but the general aspect of barrenness and complete lack of access to the outside world is characteristic. The Regimen Within the Detention Prison The arresting officers usually do not give the prisoner the reason for his arrest beyond that in the warrant which they read to him. They usuallt search hin and also search2 the place in which he lives. They then take hin directly to the prison. Here he Is asked a few questions about his identity., and personal valuables and his outer clothing ezv taken from him. These am carefully cat4Llogued and put away. Be my or my not be given a prison imi or&.2 He is usually examined by a prison physician shortly after his incarceration. 15 The entire introd=tion to the detention prism is brief and in carried on without explanation. Within a few hours after his arrest the prisoner finds himself locked up within iL ce-U. Prisoners within detention cells follow a rigid regimen. With scm variatio2ns this regimen is standard throughout the Soviet Lbion,, and has been adopted by nearly all Ccawmist countries. Ilhe rigidity of the re;dnen any be relaxed or tightened by the direction of the interrogator. An almost invariable feature of the management of W important suspect under detention is a p2eriod of total isolation in a detention cell. The priamer is placed withiv, his eell,, the door is shut., and for an indefinite period he is totally isolated from bn-*,n contact except by the specific direction of the officer in ebarge of his case. He is not allowed to talir to 2 the gmrds or to ccmmmicate with other prisoners in any manner. When be is taken fran his cell for any ressm he is accompanied by & guerd. If another pri r approaches through the corridor he turns his face to the wall until the other prisoner bas passed. 2 The hours and routine of the priamer am rigidly organized. Be is avakene& early in the morning and given a abort period in which 'bo voa;h himself . ELe food is brought to him. He ben a short and fixed time in vhich to eat It; the standard dlet is 0 16 just adequate to Mint4lin nutrition. Be must clean himself and police his ovn ce3.1; but be is not &Uoved enough time to keep it spotlessly clean. At some time in the morning he usually has an exercise period. Typically# his exercise consists of walking 2 alone in the exercise yard. If be is in rigid isolation,, be my not be allowed to exercise at all. He is usually alloved a slop jar in his call vhich be can utilize for defecation and urinationl, but sometimes this is taken avay. Then he must call the guard and perhaps wait for hours to be taken to the latri2ne. At all times except when he is eating,, sleeping,, exercising,. or being interrogated, the prisoner is left strictly alone in his cell. Be has nothing to do,, nothing to read,, and no me to talk to. U2der the strictest regimen he my have to sit or stwd in his cell in a fixed positim all day. He my 2sleep only at hours prescribed for sleep. Mwn be must go to bed prcoqft.ly when told and must lie in a fixed position qpon his back with his 'HAna outside the blanket.. If be deviates from this position, the guard outside will avaken his and make him resme It. 2be 32.ight in his cell bums constantly. He =at sleep with his face constantly tovard it. :Ef the pri r become ill., be in taken to a prism pbysician by vbca be is treated with the beat medical care avail- able according to the prat-iiees cc== to Soviet medicine. If 0 17 . . ....... .... .... necessary., he my be placed under hospital care; but as soon as he has recovered the regiinen will be resumed. Priso3ers am not allowed to commit suicide. 7hose vbo attempt to do so are thvarted and carefully nursed until they recover; the2n the regimo--n is resumed. DL-viatims from the prescribed regimen are prckptly noticed by the gwlrds and are punished. Disturbed behavior is punished also. :Ef this bebav-ior persists and the officer in charge of the case is convinced that the prisoner has becone 2 mentally ill,, the =Lu my be placed imd r medical care until his health bw returned; then the regimen is resumed. Mis regimen vithin the detention cell is in itself a most potent vtmpon in the ha"da of the MVD. It has been developed and refined over a period of many y2ears and used on literally thousands of prisoners. It is highly effective in "break-[in the vi2.1" of prisonezo -- so wach so that many XVD officers am convinced that there is literally no mn vbo cannot be brou&t to do their bidding. 7he Effects of the RESIES in the Isolation CeU 7he effects of this regimen upon prisoners are striking. It has been mentioned that the =m vho has been arrested by the XYD is us=3.ly intensely apprehensive. Often be has known for weeks that be vftu-be amoatod but ha& WA-so cOLear kwwledge of vimm 18 or for what reason. Ik has been seized in the middle of the night and taken without explanation to prison. He knows that no friend can help him and that the MM my do with him what they please. A major aspect of his prison experience is isolation. Mm is a social2 aninml; he does not live alone. From birth to death, he lives in the company of his fellov -%in. ELs relations with other people and., especially with those closest to him., are at as im ,portant to him as food or drink. When a man is totally isolated,, he is removed fi-cm all of the interpersonal 2 relations which are so important to him and taken out of the social role which sustains him. His internal as well as his externgl life is disrupted. Exposed for the first time to total isolation in an MVD priscm., he develops a predictable group of syzpt,me, which might &I at be cal2led a "disease syndrvae'. The guards and XYD officers are quite familiar with this syndrome. They watch each new prison r with technical interest as his syzptcms develop. The initial appearance of an arrested prisoner is one of bewilderment. For a fev hours, he mav sit quietly in his cell 9 looking confused and dejected. But within a short time =at prisoners beccm alert and begin to take an interest in the:Lr environwzt. Emy react with expectancy when anyow approaches 19 the door to the cell. They sbov interest ud anxiety as they am exposed to each n" feature of the prison routine. Mwy my questions or begin conversations. Scme U&ke deman"a* they to b2ov vby they are being held) and protest that they am 2 innocent. if they are foreign nationa3 . they my insist IJPM seeing their consular officers. Some take a "you can't do this to =11 attitude. Scoe pass through a brief period of obouting., threatening., and demanding. All of this is alvays sternly repressed. If need2 be., the officer in charge of the cam vi3.1 see the prisoner., remind him of the routine, threaten himl vith punisbuent,, and punish him if he does not subside. During this period the prisoner has not yet appreciated the full import of his situation. Be tries to fraternize vith the guexds. He 2 leaves part of his food if he does not like it. He tries to speak to prisoners vhm be passes in the corridors and reaches back to close the door behind his vben be is taken to the latrine. The guards refer to this as the period-of getting flacclizatized' to the prism routine. After a2 few days it beccoes apparent to the prisome that, his activity av&Us his nothing and that he vill be punished or reprimanded for even the omllest breaches of the routine. go vanders vbm be vM be released or questicned. His requests have been listens& to but never acted Wm. He becomes 20 increasingly &=ious and restless and his sleep Is disturbed. Be begins to look up alertly when arqone passes in the corridor. He JtWo vben the guard comes to the door. He becomes adjusted to the routine in his cell and goes through it punctiliously but be still leaves some of his food and occasionally 2reveals by small gestures his lack of ccuplete submission to his environ- ment. The period of anxiety., hyperactivity and apparent adjust- ment to the isolation rou ine usually continues frm one to three veeks. As it continues,, the prisoner becomes increasingly dejected and dependent. He gradua2lly gives up all spmtaneous activity within his cell and loses &3.1 care about his pers appearance and actions. Finally., be site and stams vith a vacant expression,, perhaps endlessly tvisting a bu+.tcm on his coat. He allows himself to become dirty and disheveled. Whez 2 food is presented to bin., he no longer bothers v:Lth the niceties of eating but be eats it all. He my mix it into a m2gh and stuff it into his mouth like an aniwal. Be goes through the notions of his prism routine autcoatieally as if he vere in a daze. The slop jar is no longer offensive to bin. At this 9 point.. the prisoner seem to lose many restraints of ordinary bebaylor. He may soil blawaf., he veeps., matters and prays aloud to himself. lb fo3.lovs the orders of the guard vith the 23. C a trlined animgi. Indeedp the gumrds B&Y that docility Of reftced to ftt I sw. it is estimted tbst in prisoners mv the average case t takes fr.= four to six weeks of rig:Ldp total 2isolation to produce this ilhencOen0n, es isolation in Prison 'BP of The man who first experienc course, experiencing far more than simple isolation. He usua,4 feels profoundly anxious. helpless., frustrated,, de2jected., and entirely uncertain about his futwe- His first reaction to the of bewilderment and som isolation procedure is indeed one numbness at the calamity which has befallen him. This is followed by a period of interest and apprehension about every detail of the prison regimen.. accompanied by ho2pe that he can explain everything an soon as he gets a chmce, or an expects- tion that he will be released vhen the proper authorities bear about his plight. Sur-h hopes last but a fev days, but they keep him alert and interested during that time. As hope disappears, a reaction of anyious waiting super- 2 venes. In this period, the profound boredcm and cceplete loneliness of his situation gradually overwhelm the prisoner. There is nothing for him to do except rundmte. Because he has so much to worry about, his runinationsam seldca pleasmt. Frequently, they take the form of going over and over all the 9 possible causes for his arrest. Rio nood becmes one of 22 dejectim. His sleep is disturbed by ni&tmares- He ultimtely X*Aclms & stage of depression in vhich he ceases to care &boat his personal appearance and behavior and pays little attention to his in this stage the Prisoner my have :LUusory experiences. A2 distant sovnd in the corridor souads like someone c&Uing his nam. The rattle of a footstep my be interpreted &a a key in the lock opening the cell. God my seer to ffpeak tO his in his prayers. He may see his v:Lfe standing beside him. Big need for human cc=anionship and his desire to talk to anyone 2 about anything becomes a goaving appetite like the b=ger a a starving mwn. Other Aspects of the Isolation Regimen Not all of the reaction to this imprisoment experience can be attributed to isolation alone. Other potent forces are acting upon the nevly iMr:Lsoned mwn.2 The pr:Lsmer Is anxiety about hi,m elf is compowded by vorry about vbat my bappm to his fr:LendA and asomiates., and., in the case of those vbo possess information vbich they vish to bidel, apprehension about bov wich the Xe knovs or vin ftA out. Ev in the absence Of iSO1&tiCn profound and uncontrolled anxiety is disorgilnizing. Uncertainty adds to his anxiety. ![be nevly arrested pr:Lsoner does not know hm long be vM be confined., bw be vM be pmisbed., or with vbat he vi3.1 be cbarged. He'does know that 2his pmisbmut =7 23 uiw4u@= zvW uT Lmg=m ST 9ni@waAB W*PW;D IPTRA 4'6 TOAOT !@,w 11,4wm gv@MUT-4wo 04-minDo Jo; VTOO O" -W VR an MnTo ST qoTqjL r"oT i @v Ttoo sq,4 jo M Suiuivl@ub-M P I-WI. 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UT '4qftT '4unguO* G%Z *40*Tg "=b*P Z*="Ttd 2 00 ftn,cr"aid Fm a%STt@,oj ftT,4va= a= asM jo 6&-;VOMO "M p anz -emipsead ftTAWi jo 9AU aATV*;p tTqp; Vm weftp Tvwl;4TPP9 NM 094VP UT 'OOT;JO &q'4 "OVO;P PGZTIIOP go O=Vwd " Ohoue 4ou 0= euote maq-4. ;I -*-tq=*ToWT owoq SW ROTRA =T'4vft'4TO 'D MJJ Odg0og JO PMOM ands 4"9 n "=419 -0="2uT zT*q!@ " XM 004 ZO"* mq'4 9*m " VmT*T;Ps trr§u= 0= 'CL-OPM PM LWTw4JOO= "OOTI-VTOOT P 9-4@J;O NM *OuBTt'ai VW aws zoq4mj Piel oaxmqqSTtt 7m geouoqzn,4oTp deaTS. ***=Txadn *ToqA OM p %oodev *Tquzw-,qun Vow sq,@ o-; ftuTv;jomm -4vq-4 An oxametad Luix ,4===mTidmT Vmmz;ad zo 7%vap oo4 & DwRlim oq body temperature, is enervating and fatigue PrOd=JLng- Sustained cold is uncomfortable and poorly tolerated* Still anotlmr pressure is to reduce the food ration to the point to which the prismer experiences constant hwwr- I)epriv2ation of food produces lassitude., loss of general interest and some breakdovu of co='age- ighere is usually a lose of veigbt.. often associated with weakness and asthenia. Scue individuals beccm profo=41y depressed vbm deprived of food- loth in prison camps and in hmm e2xperiments., it has been observed that chronically hm3,grY people can be induced to break dovn their culture-bound inhibitions and carry out antisocial acts in order to relieve their hunger. -the effects of isolation., -qn3dety., fatigue.. lack Of sleep2., =comfortable temperatures, and chronic h=g= produce d:Lstlarb- a=es of smav attitudes., and behavior in nearly all prisoners- 'The living orpnim cannot entirely withstand S=b ass,-Iml-tL'- -fhe ccmumisto do not look Vm these assaults as It --y do in ntorture . Umloubtedly, they use the methods which tb order to confo=, in a typical legalistic numerp to CO=MiBt tb,emy which demnds that "no force o2r torture be wed in extracting infox-MtioU priamers." But these methods do tortwe #ad pbysical coercion and should never be bances considered otherwise. All of thm lead to serious distor 6 25 of mm7 bodily processes and to demobi3.ization of the personality. The laterrogiltor The XYD officer vbo has charge of a case during the period of suspicion., surv illance and arrest is now supplanted by Pt" r officer vho is charged with the inter2rogation of the prison and the preparation of the deposition. Withi" the XYD,, assigaments to interrogiltion@. am not highly regarded. Such vork is not looked upon as glamorous or exciting. Very often it involves assignment to owU7ing and relatively du22 regions of2 the Soviet Udon, and usually it is bard and thankless. 2he interrogation of prisoners is a tiring and an emotionally trying procedure. It can be assumed that a majority of those involved in the investigation and interrogation of =important prisoners are am of average ability vith no great entjr=igm 2for their job. Noveyer., the XVD does also possess higt4 Wd'Ied,, vell-educated.. extremely , experienced and able interrogators vho are devoted to their profession and pro of their abi3.ities. The interrogator assigma to an inpor+.azt 1 prisoner can be expected to be a man of such high mliber, Some of those vbo go into political police activity receive only a sort of "on-the-job" training unde the guidance of more senior and experienced mn; but a fair proportion of these police 26 officers are especially trained at an KVD school nea Mosem. This school has been in existence for at least 15 Years- It gives a course of two years duration. Tminees are a3.loved to observe a deamstr-ation interrogation but do not actu&U7 conduct interrogations them elves. No formal training in psycboloa., psychiatry.. pharmacology or physiology is included in the curricu3.uuL. There am no representatives of any of these sciences on the faculty and, as far as can be ascertained., re never have been. Tminees do receive information from experi- enced police officers on bow to prepare a dossier.2, bow to "size-up" a man., and bow to estimate vbat sort of methods to use in "breaking' him; but the instructors drav entirely upon police experience. They have a contempt for theoretical psychiatry and psychology. Interrogation When the prisoner has been arrested and incarcerated in his cel2l the officer in charge of his case submits to his superiors a plan for the interrogation of the prisoner. This plan is dra,wn up on the basis of what is already known about the prisoner. It describes the methods to be used upon bin, the attitudes to be takelm toverd him,, the type of information which it is8 ex type ,Pected that be will reveal., and the of crimes which he is believed to have committed and the assumed motivation for them. 27 77 The purpooe of this plan appears to be Pri=!Lrily that Of the interrogator approach the prisoner with a definite coneeption of vhat he vants to do, and how be is going to proceed in doing it. Soviet lav specifies that, if a moln is detained on suspicion, the first protocol of his interrogati2on must be given to the state prosecutor within ten days so that an arrest varrant my be issued, or the man may be released. In general, interrogators are con- strained to comply with this regulation., and they try to produce enough evidence to obtain an arrest within ten days. Because they 'have little except suspicion to guide their questioning, 2 they am necessarily vague in describing the prisoner's crimes to him. They =at be cautious lest the prisoner get wind of wbat they want him to say and refuse to say it. It is probably this more than any calculated cunning vbich causes them to mk to the prisoner such enigogltic statements as-."It is not up to me to teU 2 you vbat your crimes am; it is up to you to tell me" -- statements vbich lead the perplexed prisoner to rack his brain for an auaver. The prosecutor is not hard to satisfy., and the interrogator nearly alvays obtains enough evidence to make an "arrest". If not, he can apply for an extension of the detention period. The lav 4 provides no real protection for the prisoner. It has been estimated that more than 994 of those vho are seized am ultimately convicted and pmished. 28 Interrogations, once beg are continued until. the cas-- in ccW3.et,al tut in some eiremstanees they am inteutiOM127 d&167&d. It appears that this delay is invosed -§%P-n tb,-- prisoner is defiant., 2 vben he is thovght to be wit ld4ng informtion,, vhen the XVD is seeking a confession to crims other tb= those,for vhich it has evidmee,, and-espeei&14 it vants to use the prisoner for a public trial or to obtain a pxvpagands confession from him. In such cases., the interrogation begins vhm the officer in charge feels tbut the prisoner is ripe for it. This is usu&12Y w he observe* that the prisoner has become docile and compliant and shows evidenne of de rioration in his mood and personal appearance. Interrogations are &Iwst uniformly carried out at ni2ght - It in said that this practice of nigl2t interrogation originated not from any preconceived idea of its effectiveness., but because the early Chokisto vem so o.erburdened with po3.ice duties during the day that they eaqld find time for interrogations only at night. For am reason or another,,2 it has become standard procedure., possibly because the physical and psychological effect of night interrogiltiew prodv&" added pressure upon the prisoner. Be is deprived of sleep and placed in a state of added uncertainty by never knowing vbea he will be avakened and questioned. Typically, he vi3.1 be avakezed ou4&knly by the guard shortly after he has dropped off to sleep. Vithout explanation be is 29 taken frtu his eel-I and down several corridors to a =all and barren interrogation roca equipped with a desk and chair for the interrogator and a stool for the prisoner. The lighting is arranged so that the prisoner can be placed in a bright light while the interrogator site in relative darkness. Sometimes a2 stenographer is present in one corner of the rocm to take notes. More Often the interrogator makes his own notes., writing as the prisoner speaks. Usually only one interrogator is present but occasionally other officers are introduced. Somietines interro- gators alternate, for psychological reasons, one being "friendlyw 2 and the other "hostile". If his work is successful, the original interrogator may carry the case through to a conclusion, but if he does not achieve the desired goal, he may be replaced. The atmosphere of the interrogation rocm generally has some degree Of forinlity about it. The interrogator any be dressed in full mifors. If he wishes2 to in .press the prisoner, he may take out a pistol, cock it, and lay it on the desk before his; but this psychological gambit does not seen to be a required part of the protocol. The interrogator adjusts his attitude toward the prisoner according to his estimate of the kind of man he is facing. If the dossier In5dicates that the prisoner is a timid and fearful mn, the interrogator nay adopt a fierce and threatening demeanor. If 30 the pris r is thought to be proucl and sensitive,, the interrogator pay be insulting and degrading. If the prisoner has been a man of prestige and importance in private life,, the interrogator my ea32 his by his first nme., treat his as an inferior and remind hiin that he has lost all rank and privilege. If it is knovn that the prisoner has been unfaithful to his wife or has committed some crime such as embezzlement., the interrogator may bl=k-,,il him by threatening exposure or punisbment unless he cooperates. All these and many other tricks may be employed. They are not based upon a scientific theory of 'ni-in behavior; they are tricks of the trade., s2o to speak, developed out of police experience and applied on a 'rule of thumb", comon sense basis. Almot invariably the interrogator takes the attitude that the prisoner is guilty and acts as though all of his crimes are knovn. Almost invariably he points out to the prisoner that he 'is completely helpless., and that there is no hope for him unl2ess be cooperates fully and confesses his crimes completely. Almot never does the interrogator state specifically vbat the prisoner's cri a actu&Uy axe - This is left up to the prisoner vho is told, In effect,, that he knova the extent of his own criuesj, and need only to make a complete statement of them. Almst invariably the 4 interrogator does not accept the early statements of the prisoner. No matter vbat crimes he confesses., the interrogator forces the 31 prisoner to repeat his statements again and epinl, and to elaborate on thm endlessly. Almost always he uses any discrepancies as indications of lying and questions the prisoner at length about thm. The first interrogation sessions am nearly always concerned with a complete review of the entire life experience of the prisoner. The2 interrogator wishes to know about the prisoner's background., his class origin, his parents., brothers and sisters, his friends and associates and everything that he has done throughout his life. If the case is of any importance, no detail is overlooked., and every period of the prisoner's life must be accounted for. This reviev of the2 prisoner's life may occupy several interrogation sessions. It has several purposes. Its first purpo se is to complete the prisoner's dossier. gives +-he interrogator a tboroug f the type of man he is dealing tL picture o with and further guides his to the man's weaknesses which can 2be exploited. Furthermore., requiring a man to account for every detail of his life produces such a volminous and involved story that the prisoner can scarcely avoid being trapped into i=onsist- encies if he is concealing anything. The information obtained frca the life history can also be compared with that already in the polic1e files., vhich is usually extensive. From the police 32 C point of view., it is also important to know the asomistes of the prisoner because this way reveal his 'accomplices', who then beccm suspects and cm be interrogated. Most Important, it reveals many "cri-inal" features of the prisoner such as reaction- ar7 class origin., membership in reactionary 2organizations and association with enemies of the state which are by Communist definition "crimes" no matter how long ago they were committed. The prisoner, taken from his cell after a long period of isolation, anxiety and despair, usually looks upon the first interrogation as a welcome break. The mere opportunity to talk to someone is intensely2 gratifying. Many prisoners have reported that after long periods of isolation they eagerly anticipate interrogation sessions and try to prolong them simply for the companionamp which they afford. Not infrequently, the prisoner else) r#beards interrogation as an opportunity to justify himself and feels false assurance that he can explain everything if given 2 a chance. Usually be is much taken aback by the fact that his crimes are not specified, and that his guilt is assumed. Be is further distressed when his protestations of innocence are greeted as lies, But the opportunity to talk about his life experiences is generally looked upon, especially by a person.from Western society,, as an opportunity to justify his behavior. Many5 men willingly divulge 33 all they can remember about themselves because they feel quite avure that they have done nothing vhich may be rega.L as crilwivial. They aro-- mavam that., from the point of view of Comm=ist theory and of the MVD2 such of their past behavior undoubtedly vill be const2rued as "criminal". If the interrogator offers then the opportmnity to ha-we paper and pencil in their cells and to vrite out their biographies,, they seize upon this avidly as a means of relieving the boredom of the tedious, lonely routine-to vhieh they axe exposed. Pressures Applied by the Interrogator As the interrog2ation proceeds, the interrogator changes his behavior according to his previous plan and the development of the case. If the prisoner is cooperating and talkinx freely, the interrogator continues to show a relatively friendly attitude. But sooner or later he invariably expresses dissatisfaction with t]2e information vhich the prisoner has given, no matter hov 2 complete it may be. le Amanda nev details., and shows an especially great interest in the accomplices of the prisoner and the "organization" to vhich be in supposed to have been attached. When the prisoner protests that be has told all., and denies any other crimes or accomplices,, the interrogator becomes hostile and begins to apply pressure. 6 34 Some of the pressures which can be applied simply by altering the routine within the cell have been described. The interrogator has many others at his ccmnand. Continuous and repetitive interrogation is an effective and very common form of pressure. Another which in widely used is that of requiring the prisoner to stand through2out the interrogation session or to maintain some other physical position which becomes painful. This, like other features of the MVD procedure, is a foru of physical torture, in spite of the fact that the prisoners and MVD officers &like do not ordinarily perceive it as such. Any fixed position which is maintained over a long period of time ultimatel2y produces excruciating pain. Certain positions, of which the standing position in one, also produce impairment of the circulation. Many men can withstand the pain of long standing, but sooner or later all men succ=b to the circulatory failure it produces. After 18 to 24 hours of continuous standing, there is an acamulition 2of fluid in the tissues of the legs. This dependent 'edema" is produced by the extravasation of fluid from the blood vessels. The ankles and feet of the prisoner swll to twice their normal circvnference. The ed my rise up the legs as high as the middle of the thighs - The skin beccmes tense and intensely painful. Lar9ge blisters develop which break and exude watery serm. The accuwilation of the body fluid in the legs 35 produces an impaizmn of the circulation. The heart rate increases and fainting may occur. Eventually there is a renal shutdown, and urine production ceases. Urea and other metabolites accmwAAte in the blood. The prisoner becomes thirsty.. and my drink a good deal of water., which is not excreted,Ibut &Ms to the 2 edema of his legs. Mm have been known to remain'standing for periods as long an several days. Ultimately they usually develop a delirious state., characterized by disorientation, fear., delusions, and visual hallucinations. This psychosis is produced by a combination of circulatory impairment, lack of sleep,, and urestia - 2 Periods of long standing are usually interrupted from time to time by interrogation periods during which the interrogator demands and threatens,, while pointing out to the prisoner that it would be easy for his to end his misery =rely by cooperating. The-XVD hardly ever uses manacles or chains, and rarely resorts to physical beati2ngs. The actual physical beating is., of course,, contrary to MVD regulations. The ostensible reason for these regulations is that they are contrary to Ccmnunist theory. The practical reason for then is the fact that the XYD looks upon direct pbysical brutality as an ineffective method of obtaining the compliance of the prisoner. Its o4pinion in this regard is shared by police in other parts of the world. In general,, direct physical 36 brutality creates only resentment, hostility and further defianee. It is a general policy that the interrogator must obtain the written permission of his superiors before using extreme coercive measures of azy sort upon prisoners. In actual practice such permission is sought only if the officer in charge of a case feels that there is a need for a dir2ect brut'al assault. The XVD recognizes that some men who are intensely afraid of physical assault my break down if beaten once or twice, and it does use this procedure deliberately, though uncommonly. Generally spesikiin , vhe@ an interrogator strikes a prisoner in anger he does so "unofficially". The act is usually an ex2pression of his exasperation and evidence that he, himmlf., is under emotional strain It can be taken for granted that some period of intense pressure and coercion will be applied to every prisoner., no mui,@er how ewperative he tries to be at first. This period of pressur,e will be accompanied by expressions of di9spleasure and hostility from the interrogator, and sometimes from the guards also. The"Priendly Approach" The interrogator will continue this pressure until he feels that the prisoner is nearly at the end of his rope. At this point he introduces a psychological gambit which is probably the most 3T successful of any of the tricks at his eamema. He evadenly ch=&s his demeanor. The prisoner, returned once Win to an interrogation session that he expects will be a repetition of torture and vilification, suddenly finds that the entire scene has changed. The interrogation room is brightly lighted. The in2terrogator is seated behind his desk, relaxed and smiling. Tea and cigarettes are waiting on the table. He is ushered to a comfortable chair. The gusrd is sent away and sometimes the secretary also. The interrogator remarks about his appearance. He is sympathetic about the discomfort which he has been suffering. He is sorry that the prisoner has had such a diffi- cult time. The interrogator himself would not have wished to do this to the prisoner -- it is only that the prison regula- tions require this treatment, because of the prisoner's ovu stubbornness. "But let us relax and be friends. Let us not talk any more about crimes. Tell me about your fauily" -- aaa 2 so on. The usual line is to the effect that, "After all., :E aiL a reasonable man. I want to get this business over as -ucb as you do . This in as tirescm to me as it is to you. We already know about your crimes; it is a sere formality for you 'to write out your confession. Why don't we get it over with so that everything 8can be settled and you can be released?" 38 prisoners find this sudden friendship and release Of P2esutne almost irresistible. Nearly all of then avidly seize the oppor- tvnity to talk about themselves and their feelings, and then go on to talk about their families. Most of then proceed from this almost automatically to giving the information v2hich the interro- gator seeks. Even if they do not provide everything the interro- @Ltor vants at this time., be my continue his friendly demeanor and the relaxation of pressure for several more sessions before remmina the old regimen of torture. But if the prisoner does reveal significant information and cooperates fully, the revards am prompt and gratifying. The interrogator smi2les and congratu- lat,es him. Cigarettes am forthcoming. There is a large meal, often excellently prepared and served; and after this the prisoner returns to his cell and sleeps as long as be likes, in emy pnoition that he chooses. The Courw of the interrogation Such friendly and reverding beha2vior will continue for several days -- usually as long an the interrogator feels that a sigaificant mount of now information is being produced. At this point the prisoner my conclude that his ordeal is over; but invariably he is disappointed. For as soon as the interrogator decides that no new information is being yielded, the regimen of constant pressure and h8ostile interrogation is resumed. Again it 39 MEMO -21000 IAL is carried to the point at which the prisoner is near breakdown. Again it is relaxed, and again the prisoner is rewarded if he cooperate*. Izk this ma=er, proceeding with regular steps, alternating p2uniabsent with revard, the prisoner is constantly pressed to revise and rewrite the protocol until it contains &3.1 the statements which the :LnterrogiLtor desims., and is in a finit' form which -pets with his approval. When it has at last been agreed upon and signed, the pressure is relaxed "for gooe, but 2 the prisoner continues to live in his cell and continues under the threat of renewed pressure until such time &a he has been taken before a court, has confessed, and has been sentenced. Throughout the entire interrogation period, the prisoner is under so= form of medical surveillance. Prison physicians are fe-iliar with &3.1 the effec2ts produced by XVD procedures, and evidently they are skilled at judging just hov far the various procedures can be carried without killing or permanently dana ing the prisoner. Prisoners who bave-been beaten have their wo da carefully dressed. Those who are forced to stand for long periods of time are examined periodically during the procedure. 4 Scmetimes the physician intervenes to call a halt if be feels the prisoner is in danger. The unintended death of a prisoner during the interrogation procedure is regarded as a serious error on the pp.rt of the prison officials. 4,D The laterrop t*, is poft -,of Viev and (YbiecttYeW 1+. bas been mid that the interrogator avproaehes the prisoner vitbl the wwaption that he- is gtlilty. It In importamt- that ve deflxo,.--tbis outement precisely.2 It does not seen that the interrogator is not avere of the "trw facts" of the sitvAL- tion but that he interprets in the ligilt of Ccm=ist ideology. The NO officer in a Commist. He bas selected this prisoner from one of the groups of suspects described ear3.ier. The mm vas arrested because the MD, vhich represents the ccmstmist State., regarded bin as a menace to the Party or its An7out vho is a menace to the Party is,, by definition progrm. guilty of threatening the security of the Ccmnist State. Ergo., from the commist p2oftt Of VievL, the ma is 'guilty' . In other- vlords, the XO Us decided that this man =at be dealt vitk ij& acme manner,, 'for the good of the $Ute." Once the =a bas bee& arrested t]Lis poixlt is ac longer open to qoestton. This is the true than& oooter:Lc me-inx of Ow frequatly repeated CcomsoList statement that 01* a-ecommist oute,, innocent people am never Of "AL*211+n If am accepts their definition 49" minamenoo"., ULD Is indeed a fact 9 liowe"r., the interrogator does not know Just vbat specific scrims' the ma,day bave comitte,&. In fact., it is qvlte clear ,,tbat most of the-peopu arrested by the NY* have not re&W ccmitted any specific serious crimes at all. But the police dO' know that the prisoner has comitted some acts vhich a-re contailry to the broad Soviet lave against political crimes, as vell as minor "actual' crimes. Purtheruore, experience has taught tbm that if they put enough pressure upon the prisoner, soc-ner or2 later they vil-I get his to confess to acts vtLicbL can be inter- preted as a "mjor crime". Once this confession has been obtained,, the XVD can demand from the court a punisbment equivalent to tbilt vhich it intended that the prisoner should receive when it arrested his. Much of th2e activity of the interrogator can be looked upon as a process of persuasion. The primary work of an interrogator is to convince the prisoners that vbat they did vas a crime. Having gotten evidence from his informers and from the prisoner, it is up to the interrogator to persuade the prisoner that certain acticias i2@tich he has carried out constitute a crime. The prisoner is usually prepared to admit that the acts bave been carried out. Often as not, he revealed then freely because he did not consider then to be cri-in I. It is up to the interrogator to make the prisoner see,that these acts do constitute a serious 5crime., and acknowledge this by sisming a deposition and -wki a confession in court if necessary. The Commmist legal system requires that this be done before a case can be settled. 42 The fact that the interro tor in a dedicated Cc=wnist makes his task of peremsion senevbat easier. The interrogator approaches the prisoner vith the knowledge that the v&,k-a is actually a criminal by Camanint definition; and he has a large body of convenient Ccmmmist definitions a2nd rationalizations to help his in con- ing his victim of this. For exmple,, according to Cc=2,nist theory, sets are judged by their "objective effects" rather than the motives of those who comitted them. Thus, if a prisoner,, an honest mistake, has dom@pd a piece of mehinery longing to the State, he is a 2"wrecker". Objectively., he has wrecked an izport-ant piece of property belonging to the State. The fact that he did this with innocent motives is not a considera- tion. Thus a "mistake"., and "accident" and a "crime" all become the same thing. Likewise, according to Commmint theory,, a mn's acts and 2 thoughts are judged "consequentially'. Thue, if a p-risoner is have said that the MVD vas too poverful, the fact that said this my make his a "traitor" and "saboteur". The Camunist reasoning is that a man vho says that the XYD is too po,werfu3.., believes that it in too powerful and 5vill ultimately act upon this belief. This ultimate &et viU constitute sabotage and treason; therefore,, the =a is a saboteur and a traitor. Similarly, a =La vbo has friendly association vith foreign 43 national Ngwt have friendly feeling toward foreign goyerments am Capitalist and ImPerig"st ; oL mn vbo is friendl7 to foreia natiameJA is giving help to the agents of capitalist imperi&lim; tboreforep2 the man is a aN vbether he re&3.ims it or not Such peculiar twists of Commmist logic am difficult for Western prisoners to accept at first. Usually they object strenuously to these definitions of "treason", "wreckine ) and -sabotap-; but ultimtely., under constant pressure 2and Per8m- sion., a prisoner usually agrees to some statement to the effect that., "By ccmnmist laws I au a 83?Y. a Thereafter, there follova further arg=ent and persuasion to the effect that a per*= is judged by the lavs of the country in vtlich the crimes axe comitted. Ultimately the2 TmLlifying pbram is mitted., and the final deposition contains the simple statement, "I an a spy.' )ft=;, %.mD officers impress the prisoner by the sincerity of their dedication to Comomim and its ostensible ide&3.9. The interrosltor often displxyg a patient symp2athy vhich becoms wnt to the prisoner. His attitude tbat., "This is scm &PW ve =at go throvgh with and neither you nor I cm stop 'until you have cooperated and sigwd a proper confessim",, is to some extent a genuine attitude. The XYD system allows of no other solu9tion from the ixterrogator's point of view. It is in fact 44 true that the interrogations vill have to go on 'until a proper deposition has been signed. The prisoner often emes to recognize this sincerity. Many see that indeed the interrogator must follow the systes, and there is nothing vblich he can do about it. Thuso the prisoner,, in his need for companionship, may displace his 2 hostility from the interrogator to the "system". Many interro- gators genuinely plead with the prisoner to learn to see the trath., to think correctly,, and to cooperate. The Reaction of the Prisoner to the Interrogation The vay in which a prisoner reacts to the whole process of Interrogation is to a gre2at extent dependent upon the uwlnner of wiwln he is, his pre-existing attitudes and beliefo@ and the circumstances surrounding his arrest and impriso=ent. All prisoners have this in c------- They have been isolated and have been under unremitting pressure in an atmosphere of hostility and uncertainty. They all find theumlves in a dile@ at the time that the interrogation begins. The regimen of pressure and isolation has created an overall discomfort vhich is vel.1 nigh intolerable. The prisoner invariably feels that somethin =at be done to find a way out. Death is denied his. Mtimtely., he finds himself faced vith the choice of continuing 1interodnably under the intolerable pressures of his captors or accepting the way out, vhich the interrogiltor.offers. The vay out in a 45 raticneL3'zatica. It allows the prisoner to meet the de=W of his interrogator by degirees,, while at the ea= time retaining within himself some abred of belief that by his own standards he bus not capitulated. The rationalization may be -- and very often is -- so patently absurd and untru2e that the victim., in his "right mincl",, would be utterly incapable of accepting it. But be is not in his right mind. ELs capacity to distinguish true from false.. or good from bad, has been deliberately undemined. With exceptions prisoners accept this way out., provided the pressures are prolonged and intense and the interrogat2or can effectively adjust his persuasiveness. Various categories of prisoners respond to different types of persuasion. Persons who have been lifelong members of the Ccowmist party are familiar with the Comunist concept of "crim" and the functions of the XVD. Furthermore,, they have all been trained in 2 ""e o-l' self-criticism, confession,, punisbment and rebabili- tation which has been put of Ccowxaist procedure since before the revolution. Many Ccmnmists can rationalize a belief that they are actually criminals as specified by the XVD and ecue to see their puniaboent as necessary for the good of the State mA the Party. TD the +.rue Party mmber, such mlrtyrdm carries with it air of tri=Th. 46 Son-Cominist prisoners of idealistic beliefs or socialist sympathies appezently ready targets for the logic of the interrogator. Such persons am uzmlly compelled to agree that the ostensible and idealistic motives of the Communist Party am "good", and that those who oppose these ideals are 2"bad". The rationalization in this case takes the form of getting the prisoner to say that the Commmist Party has the value system that he does; something which the prisoner agrees is "bad7 by his own definition. From this point the prisoner proceeds through the usml steps to the ultimate sigaing of the deposition. 2 Persons vho carry with tlum strong feelings of guilt associated with higb4 organized systems of moral values likewise become ready targets for the persuasion of the interrogator. Very few people am entirely free of guilt feelings.. but., inappropriate as it seems., such feelings often are found in the highest degree in those2 vhose objectives and behavior are beyond reproach. For example,, many strongly religious people have a profound sense of sin. They feel guilty of shortcomin s of their ovn which are micli smaller than those found in most of their fellow men. They constantly see tbesmlves as transgressing their own moral code and in 1the need of forgiveness for doing so. Skilled interro- giltore a& use of this. 47 Individmls with so-called sociopathic or psychopabkde personalities vho have few adral scruples am vulnerable beeseme they can be bribed,, in a sense., to take the easy vay out. Obviously,, ind:Lriduals actuau..v "caught with the goods" receive short shrift 2at the bauft of the MVD interrogator. The maze in vbich any prisoner finds himself has so mwq ramifications that it is almost impossible for him to escape from it without signing a protocol and being convicted. AnytbJmg he has done my be a crime. He has been adjudged guilty before his arrest. He is put in a situ2ation of intolerable pressure. It in made clear to himl that his only vay out of this situation is to cooperate with the interrogator. He is offered a reasonable rationalization for doing so. Sooner or later, under these circumstances, the prisoner and the inte.Lz gator ajnoat inevitably come to an agreement upon a depositio2n vbieh satisfies both of then. 7he Trial When the prisoner has finally reached the point of admitting his crimes and be and the interrogator have agreed upon a protocol satisfactor7 to both of then, he experiences a profound sense of relief. Even though his crimes may be 7serious and the punlisbmezt for then severe,, he velccoes a surcease from the unrelenting pressures and miseries of the isiterrogation procedure. Whatever 48 C the future my hold for him, he has for the moment found a way out of an intolerable situation. When a satisfactor7 deposition has been prepared and signed., the pressures upon the prisoner are customarily relamed. Be is allowed to sleep as long as he wishes; he may have reading and 2 writing material in his room. Sometimes he can join with other prisoners in periods of exercise. His meals improve and his guards become friendly or even solicitous. This easy treatment is continued until he is thoroughly rested and his health has been restored. Then., in =at cases, he is taken before the court. The state pros2ecutor presents the court with the signed protocol and questions the prisoner about his crime. Sometimes a defense attorney is assigned; this -*,n invariably limits himelf to requesting leniency from the court. The whole procedure is usually brief and formal. There am no verdicts of "not guilty". ,@fne of the judge is solely that of presiding over t2he trial and passing upon the prisoner a sentence which brs J-mi&ll@v been agreed upon beforebana by the prosecutor and the MVD officer in charge of the case. It is this aspect of the proceedings vhich is most bev:Llder- ing to Western observers. It is easy to understand hov prisoners 2 can be tortured Into signing confessions of crimes which they did not comit., but it is difficult to understand why the prisoners do not renounce these confessions later at the public trials. 49 Beginning with the PuM Trials of the 1930 Is., the M and its successors andl offspring in Rwmias the Eastern European satellite*..-and China bave presented the world with a series of pub3.ic trials at which the prisoners calmly and seemingly without coercion ask o2utrageous confessions of uabe3.ievable criues,, pxaioe their captors., and ask for the most seveze punistment for tbemel"s. These prisoners beve included important Com=iot offici&U., former MM officers., non-Caw=ist citizens of various extegvftes., and foreigners of the2 most diverse background&. All of these prisoners apparently were innocent; acme faced certain death; and many were profoundly anti-Co=mmist. You of the higbeet-caliber and integrity like Cardinal Xindazenty amp-ml-A to have the strongest possible notimtions to resist; but none of them stood up in court and d2enounced the confession and his captors. This phenomncm demna an explanation* The explanation is available but it Is not simple. It is necessary to enal the proposition in detail in order to view it In its proper light. Firs+.., it, is by no means true that. wa.U prisoners confess freely at a public 2trial." Only a very wiLU 3Linority of prisoners of the Ccm=ist state police ever appear at a publlc trial. The proportion of those tried public3.y is e=eedinal @U. The XYD will not expose a priamer to a public trial 0 50 unless it is convinced that he will go throvgh with his confeinion an pla=2,-@d. If there it &my doubt. about this,, no public trial it held. But ev with this precaution the XYD in not ieallible. At the Purge Trials several of the prisoner tried to recant parts of their-confessions.2 When a prisoner tried to recant, the prosecutor balted the exam' tion of that person. Usually,, when he returned from his cell several days later be was again docile and cooperative. Scee of the so-called "public trials" have not actually been public. They have been carried out in the presence of a select audience vhile movies and recordings are meae of the prisoner's words which am later transmitted to the public. The mjority of prisoners do cow to trial, but these trials axe not public. They am held in camera. The state police are concerned only with political crime and espionage. Their prisoners are tried before 'Mlitary Trib=als", whic2h am not public courts. Those present am only the interrogator, the state prosecutor, the prisoner, the judges, a few stenogmpbers, and perbaps a few officers of the court. At such a trial there in no opportunity for public protest, and any protest which is md can be readily expxmged frca the record. So far an the 6 prisoner is concerned, this so-called trial appears as nothing more than the next step in his process of imprisonment. He be* m,ined entirely in the hands of his interrogltors and guards 51 with access tcr no one else - When he f imlly cems before the court he sees no one nev excei, the allte vroseett or, the judv-l and the court officials. The defense attorney, if one is assigwd, shove not the slightest interes in refuting any of the evidence in the confession or i2n establishing a plea of "not guilty". Be never questions the feet that the prisoner is guilty as charged. Sometimes he asks th6 judge for lenience; but not infrequently he informs the court that he is convinced the prisoner is just as big a monster as the prosecution says he is and that he cannot bring himself to ask the court for leniency. The judge 2 likewise shows no interest in the q%L-.stion of guilt or innocence. He limits hi,m elf to maintaini order in the court and passing sentence. If the prisoner bas any illusions that the prosecutor, the judge, and the defense attorney are going to allow him any opportunity to dispute the facts in the ease the" are soon dispe2lled. by no ml--*a do all prisoners receive a trial of any sort. Those who are stubborn or repeatedly recant their confessions during the interrogation procedure will not be trusted even at private trials. UAcooperative and stubborn prisoners and those vho might make embarrassing statements are "dealt with administratively." For alny7 years the state police bave had the right to carry out &&ainistrative trials for any prisoners vbm they do not with 'to expose to the.usual trial procedure. ftese 52 administrative tri-ILls ccm st of simply prese Ing the prisome. to & group of three senior police officers (the "Troika") vbo POS'B sentence I-- -4i&tely and have it carri-ed out forthvith. These ar-inistrative trials take p2lace within the detention prison. Sometims the prisoner is not even present at them; sentence is passed by the Troika merely upon the basis of the signed protocol. Sowtime the alleged records of these trials have bee =Ai,-. public., but generally the fact that such & trial had taken place is never rev\--&led. For every 2Soviet citizen vbo has appeared at a public trial there have been thousands vho have been tried only at private trials by military tribunals or have been dealt with administratively by the police themselves. Thus,, a great number of high Ccovanist officials, captured German officers,, and sialilar prisoners vho fell into the bands of the Russian secret 2 police vere not tried at &11. So far as the public vas concerned., they merely disappeared. It is said that since the death of Beria and the dissolution of the KM,, the right of administrative trial has been withdrevn from the NYD. The history of past attempts to reform the secret police suggest that it will be qui9etly restored within a few years,, if it has not been already. Public Confessions If ve exclude frca consideration all those prisoners vho am dealt with &A-imistratively, two questions remain: Wby do &3.1 of 53 those prisoners vhO am tried in priva'ck-- confess almost vi exception? Why do sow prisons-re confess at pub3.ic trials where there is wtually sow opportunity to make an open denial of guilt? in response to the question of why prisoners at private trials confess almost without exception the followin2g answers can be given: (1) The setting of the private trial as we have just described it mkes it apparent to the prisoner that any attempt at reewtation is useless (2) The prisoner at a primte trial is always under actual threat by the MVD. The officer in charge of his case has clearly2 indicated to him that any attempt to alter or recant any part of his confession will lead to an i=aediste resumption of the interrogiltion-torture regimen. This threat is as poigcant as a cocked pistol. (3) We= and Positive feelings between prisoners and their interrogating officers often develop duri2ng the interrogation process, and uwq prisoners come to trial with the feeling that., if they attempt to alter their testimony, they will be dishonoring an agreement with their interrogators. Finally., it is to be empbasized that in spite of all of these deterrents., sow prisoners do recant at their private 9 trials. The court then decides that these prisoners have not 54 reached a fall ava2-emwss of their cz toe - They are sent back to the detention prison, and once again put throvgh the torture-interrogation regimen. Sooner or later,, they learn that pleas of "not gailte are not acceptable in Soviet courts, and that they must behave themselves at their trials. Otherwise 2 they are indefinitely detained or executed. In anmmring the question of vby s!,-P- prisoners confess publicly vhen there is some opportunity for them to renounce their confessions and thereby embarrass their captors., one must consider the various categories of those vbo have been tried in public. Widely publicized trials are staged by the C2omm=ists only imd r exceptional circumstances and alveys for propaganda purposes. They are carefully -anA ed "set pieces" in vhich every performer must play his role exactly as prescribed. The MVD and other C ist police organizations select the prisoners for these shows with great cam. The first category 2of those vtlo have @d public confessions are prominent Bolsheviks vho have fallen from grace; Zinoviev., Kawmev., Fqkov., Bukh&rinj, Radek and their associates at the time of the great purges; more recently,, Inse,, Rajk in Hungary,, Tmicko Kontov in Bulgaria,, Slansky, Clementia, and others in Czechoslovakia., 5 China,, etc. The list in extensive., but not nearly so extensive the List of prominent Comonmist officials vho vere liquidated 55 PtA-iAistratively., probably because they could not be trtleted at a public trial. But.vby did these confess, vho did so? The old Bolsheviks "confessed" primarily because they vere lifelong., dedicated Ccm=ists. They had committed their lives to the belief that nothin is sacred but the Party,, and the Party is alvays right. If them is a central point in the Commmist creed, it is this. These men all subscribed to the belief that opposition to the Party line, as expressed by the Party leaders,, is a crime. Whatever else they vere, they vere "chronic oppositionists"., and knev 2themselves to be no. They all subscribed to the Commmist ritual of public self-criticism and punisbment. Nearly &U of then had at one time or another publicly criticized themselves and had been pvnished. Several had been expelled from the Party., not once but several time. They &U knev the2mselves to be in opposition to the Party leadership, and they all felt guilty about this. In spite of this@, they atiu considered themselves to be Bolsheviks and vere pre- pared in principle to accept any demand vhich the Party might make upon then,, even to the point of death. Another category of those vho have confessed publicly is tb&t 9 group of intellectually or idealistically motivated people vho vere thought to be opposed to Comwnian, or at least to be -on- Comiumint., prior to their arrest. Most prominent in this gr*W is 56 other Roman Cardinal Hindszenty; also included In this are Catholic priests from the sate" ite countries much as Bishop Crttszi. Still awther category Of those who have confessed publicly rious foreign businessmen, newspapermen and military am who are va 2 were arrested or captvred in the course of their routine duties; Robert Vogeler in H=gary and William Oatis in Czechoslovakia am examples. :En all of these cases,, the following factors are evident: (1) The confessions made by the prisoners were "actually true" in the sense that the specific acts described in the confessions actually oc2curred. (2) The interpretation put upon these acts vas the Cozmmist interpretation. (3) The prisoner had been brought to agree that in the country in vhich he was arrested the Comon=ist lava applied and., therefore., these acts constituted a crim. The yr4-s--L-,r; 2 therefore., pleaded guilty to "crimes' which were 'crime' by Ccommist definition5 but which he bad not intended as crimes or considered to be crime at the time that he carried then out. This qualification., however., was missing fron the state- ments mAe by the prisoners at the trials. 1 All of these prisoners vere under the threat of reneved torture-interrogation regimen if they recmted or changed their confessions. 57 (5) YANY Of the* bad the actual or implied premis@-- as vell as th@-- firm belief that they vmld be released if they cooperated vith the police. (6) Purtberjwre., all of then vere able to rationalize that their confessions vould not be believed by outsiders in 2 any case* This rationalization vas in part a correct one -- their confessions were widely disbelieved in the United States; but in some other areas of the world their confessions am accepted as factual. (7) Finally, it must be emphasized that in all these cases.. though probably to varying degrees., the brainvashin2g process -- the disintegration of personality accompanied b7 some shift in value-system -- had taken place. In the case of devoted Ccmmmists, it is possible that fanatic loyalty to the Party played a large part in bringing about the confes- sions, v%tuour, the necessity of extensive brai2nvashing. On the other band.. mjor shifts in their thinking processes xttst have influenced the public confessions of Cardinal Xiwbzenty, Vogelor and Ostia. When absurd events and incredible logic axe apparent in convincingly sincere state- mute by 3mm of =oh intelligeneej, no oth5er explanati= is sufficient. These men vere red=ed to a state in vlhich their conceptual processes vere no longer encumbered by processes of critical judgwat. 58 Punishment The period of interrogation and detention., no matter how long and terrible it my be,, is not considered imprisonment. The punishment begins only after the sentence has been passed. Some- times a lenient judge will &Uov the prisoner to count his period of detention as a part of a prison sentence,, but often this period 2 is'discounted altogether. According to Comaunint theory,, the purpose of prison systems is to rehabilitate criminals through wholesome work, productive activity,, and education. For this purpose prisoners are transported to Siberia or the Arctic vbez-e most of them spend their terms working in -in o and construction projects under brutal an2d primitive conditions. Those who are fortmete enough to receive any education during this procedure are educated by further indoctrination with Comwmint ideas. Comparison of Russian and Chinese Comamint Practices Frm the standpodut of imd retanding the techniques of brainvusbin , the practices of the Chinese 2add little to the Russian proceduresjust described. There are, however, saw general differences., a fev of which say be mentioned. (1) In Cain&., at the sownt at least, the period of detention is greatly prolonged. Whereas in the Soviet thion trial and sentencing take place fairly soon after the ecuple- ti2on of the interrogation and the preparation of a suitable 59 protocol,, in ChinEL the preparation of a first confession is only a prelude to a long period of indoctrination and re-ed=ation, vhich may go on for years. It is not terminated until those in charge of the prisoner believe that he has finally adopted a "correct" attitude and behavior. It is 2only then that the trial, the sentencing and the forml teru of imprisonment or other pvnisboent begins. (2) Unlike the KVD, the OLinese make extensive use Of gro interaction anon prisoners, in obtaining information,, in applying pressures., and in carrying out indoctrination. 2 (3) The goal of the XYD detention and interrogation procedure is the preparation of a protocol up= vhich a suitable pmisbmnt can be based., so that the XVD can then deal vith the prisoner according to its preconceived idea of vbat met be aou for the good of the Party and the 2 Soviet State. Di a minority of cases., this includes a public trial for propagmft purposes. The KVD does not appear to be greatly concerned about the future attituaes and behavior of the prisoner., so long as be behaves rly during the period of trial and sentencing. fte goal of the Chi se deten3tion and interrogation PrOCedure.. on the other hand., is pri=wily that of insuring that the prisoner vill develop relatively long J"ting cbmw in his attitudes 60 C and overt behavior that vi3.1 be sustained after his relown., so that be viU not &main constitute a danger to the mist state. The securing of information by interroga- tion,, the preparation of proper protocols and "confessions',, and the participation of the prisoners in public propaguida 2 truls., are secondary to this primary goal. (4) Whereas in the Soviet Union end the satellites the ritml of public self-criticism, confession, self-degradation, punishment., and rehabilitation lgi a party procedure confined to Comwanists,, the Chinese have extended this practi2ce to the mm-party population, and to the prison population in particular,, and have -d it an important feature of their ind,octrination procedure. (5) Physical torture of the traditional sort is more comma. Nwocles and leg chains are frequently used. (6) Procedures am less 2standardized. (7) Detention facilities am more primitive. The essential differences appear to be in those of emphasis and objective., as i=Ucated in (1) through (4) above. The Soviet objective :Ls one of secwlm a confession in a relatively short time. The Chinese objective is that of i8ndoetringltion., of con- verting the victin to Comwmim; and the process my be prolonged for years. Brainvashing in but one of many techniqmes used. 61 Frequent lectures and emetant wA intensive social pressures are also prominent elements. Some persons vho have emerged from Chinese prisons have been characterized by amazingly nl red political beliefs and immediate loyalty to Coammism. 7hey have,, indeed., been described as th2e most thoroughly brainvashed of a3.1! Whi2e the story of Chinese indoctrination is an interesting and impressive one., ve believe that it is :In the interest of clear thinkin to confine our use of the term "bra:Lnvashing" to that systematic breakdovn of the personality vhich is deliberately brought about for the2 purpose of securing false confessions. Conclusions Pz this general description it is possible to drav tvo general conclusions about Communist control techniques. First, there is little tlat is new in their repertoire of controls. A fev pages of YA.Ileus Iftleficarum*,p for example,, vi3.1 convince W reader of the amazing simile-ilty betveen present-day Ccmnmist braimmahing methods and those used for obtaining confess:Lme of witchcraft three exA fow ceztvries W. Coamniat cmtxvl of the individual and the =sees is little 6 different fran controls exercised by virtually &3.1 absolute form SUMMM, M. NLUeus Xi&leficarm. Tg>ndon ftsbkin Pftiin, 19W. 278 PP. 62 vith the Mmnmigts of goveremento past and present. What is new is the extent of application and the unsurpassed organization in administration of control techniques. The second general conclusion is that the Ccommists have developed a higbly s2ystematic use of techniques for controlling the individual. This systemization apparently bas been developed Pragmatically by trial and error., rather than from the best available theoretical principles. There is evidence that no scientists have participated in the actual brainvashing process. And considering what is knovu of the brainvashing process,, more sy2stematic application of established psychological principles could probably increase the efficacy of brainvashing. Both the Soviets and Chinese am flexible in developing "t&Uor-madew control pressures for specific individuals. This tailoring of treatment is dependent upon saw ability to dia4pose vhat combination of pressures 2vi3.1 be most effect'Lm in manipulating a particular personality. F4Tumlly,, it may be vorth re-empbasizing at this point that =MY kinds of people who have been in the '6and of the eommznists have done many different things for many diffe 0 reas all of vhicb the term "brainvasbing" has at some time been applied. Loyal communists have confessed falsely "for the good of the Party"., no doubt in scoe'cases vith little ime(U&tG 63 CO coercion. So= uneducated or rootless persons ba-ve been easy marks for conversion to Communion. It seems wise, bovever., to reserve the tezu "brainvashing" for that assault on the perem- ality vhich is a clear and prominent result of the Soviet reidnein just described.3 It is that assault on the personality to vhich ve sba2.1 now turn our attention. 64 AN AU=SIS OF CONML DURING BRAINWASEM Having gotten the "feel" of the Ccmr=i-st prima andl interrogation procedures vhieh culminate in the false confession, ve should now organize our thinking with respect to just vbat is accouplished and how this objective is brought about. 2 The objective is to procure a plausible., detailed., reasonably consistent confession of crime. A major characteristic of this confession is that nearly all of it in false. Scm of the specific acts or utterances aseribecl 31 to the victim my., to be sure, be true. But the cr4mi 'I meaning of the acts, the criminal intent of the victim in 2 performing then., many embellishments and elaborations of the acts, the victim's guilt with regard to then, an& his belief that he should be V=ished-- all these are distortions., and quite at vari-ce vith the facts. A second and most essential characteristic of the brain- vashed., confessing indivi2dual is that be appears to have developed a conviction that vhat he confesses in true. This is indeed the most wtartling elemut in the vhole picture; and this is the elemut vhich demands explamtion. 65 C An illustration may mk this clear. If a prisoner has been chosen for brainwashing, be cannot escape going through the entire process simply by indicating a viu'n= sa to sign anything he is asked to sign. In public trial,, such confessions would be unconvincingly supported by the victim, 2 or might be denied. The whole process must be carried through to the point where the victim literally evinces belief in his confession. The key figure in the brainwashing process is the interrogiltor. He is the protagonist-amund whom the prisoner develops his conflict, and upon vhool the prisoner cows to 2depend as he seeks a solution for that conflict. He provides the general outline, though not the Aptail of the great fabrication which the victim must construct,, defend., and come to believe before the process in culaimted. He initiates the pressures which &re applied to the victiml" and readily aftpto his own behavior to provid2e additional pressure. His role is predominant. The process of brainwashing is essentially one in which two paths are being fo"oved. One is the demoralizing pro- cess the remat of vhich is to reduce the victim's critical faculties to the point where he no longer discriminates clearly between true and f8alseo logical and illogical. The 66 @7 otber is the re-OrP= 'ZiM ijzccegs, in vhieh be is reqctited to construct his eceession, elaborate it, defend it, and believe it. Them two pzoee ses are actually going m all the time, though an initial softening-up usually pxeeedes the intensive interrogation and the initial construct of the confession. 2 The-previous section described in sow detail the control pressures exerted by the Commists. Recognition of the psy- chological effects of these pressures within the individual is,necessary to an understanding of brainvas'hin . It should be noted that this is a theoretical analysis. As indicated in the last section, the Commists did not design their 2 pressures to satisfy a particular need to achieve these effects. A NMthetical Schedu3.e of Brainvashing In the period imediately following capture or arrest mr,-@ fz--ed with the problem of bov to exploit the prisoner When, as in the case of arrested Soviet citizens 9 the arrest and interrogELtion plan already developed to suitable,, Little further need be done to carry out the assault upon the prisoner. When the prisoner is not a citizen of the Comunivt country., or be is a prisoner of war,, a plan =at be developed from scratch. Therefore., 67 initial- trczlbwnt in s@bdlar both for thaft vho are tcr be interlogp;ted for -imrbelligence a=d tk"ft vkm amw to tmft&90 sygitamtic br&iuvashing. One practical conseqwnce J=aediately becomes2 apparent. The minds of those VhO are to be interrogated for intelligence must be kept sufficiently clear and intact to permit a coherent,, undistorted revelation of the desired informatim; whereas in brainvashing the initial assault is upon the clarity of the thought processes. Concurrently with prelivni ry administrative contacts 2 the prisoner undergoes a physical and psychological softening- UP process. This softening-up includes limited., unpaJAtable food., regimented exercise and use of toilet facilities., withholding of reading materials, deprivation of tobacco,, and strict Tegulation of the conditions and position of sleep. As previously indicated, the most important mechanion 2 of the brainvw;hing process in the interrogation. During the course of the interrogation the interrogator may attempt to elicit information (especially in the ea" of captured military personnel), to indoctrinate his victim to the Coa- ist point of view., to attack his value-aysten and his thought processes, and to lead him through the d ralization 1 68 and reintegmtion that characterizes the brainwashed state. In achieving his objective the interrogator cmtrols the administration of all the other pressures. The following emotional alltes are created v:LtILin the individual during the systemtic course of the brainwashing: (1) A feelin2g of helplessness in attempting to deal with the imersonal machinery of control. (2) An initial re4Lction of "surprise (3) A feeling of uncertalnty about vhat is required Of him. (4) A developing feeling of dependence upon the interrogator. (5) A sense of doubt and a loss of objectivity. 2 (6) Feelings of guilt. (7) A questionilm attitude tovard his own value- syszm. (8) A feeling of potential abrelkdovn", :L.e.,, that he night go Insane. (9) A need to defend kdo acqulxed principles. (10) A final muse of "belonging" (:Ldent:Lfication). gie order in vkdch the feelings are eagm&red v:ltbin the individual my wary somewhat; but all are necessary to the brainwashing process. 69 A feeling of belplesemes in attempting to deal vith the inpersoml machineT7 of control develo%w vithin the individual during the early stages. The individual vho receives the softening-up treatnent described above not only begins to feel like an animl but feels also that nothing can be done about it. No one p2ays any personal attention to hlw. His ecaplaints fall on deaf esre. His lose of eommication, if he has been iso2a+.ed., ereates a feeling that he bas bee forgotten. Everything that bappe to him occurs according to an impersonal time schedule tbglt has nothing to do vith his needs. fte voices and footsteps of the guards am wited. H2e notes many =mtrests. The eel I a are clean but he is filthy His gre"y, mpalat4tble food is served on battered tin dishes by guards I-mculately d.ressed in vhite. The first steps in "depersonalization" of the prisones bave begun. ]Ee has no idea vbat to expect. Ample opportunity is allotted for 2 him to rmlmte upon all 'the mpleas=t or painful things tbat could happen to WA. le approaches the ulin interrogation with ui d feelings of relief and fright. 2he controlled individual is constantly exl>eriencing surprise. ftat is,, vbat he expects is often not vbat actually 4 70 happens to him. Pa-rel7 is the ijritsone., prepared for the fact that interrogators are often initially friendly and considerate. They make "ery effort to demonstrate that they are reasonable hi-m beings. Often they apologize for any bad treatment received by the prisoner and promise to Japrove 2 the prisoner's lot if be,, too,, is reasonable. This behavior is not vbat the prisoner has steeled himself for. Be lets dovn some of his defenses and tries to take a reasonable attitude. The first occasion) hovever., that the prisoner balks at satisfying a request of the interrogator, he is in for another surprise. The formerly reasonable interrogator unexpecte2dly turns into a furious -,PLY%iac vho screams epithets. The interrogator my slap the pris r or draw his pistol and threaten to shoot him. Usually this storm of emotion ceases as suddenly as it began and the interrogator stalk from the room. 2b--se smpr sing changes create a doubt In the prisoner as to his very ability to perceive another person's notivati6ms co.L.L etly. His next interrogation,, as likely as not, vill be mark d by the very impassivity of the interrogator's mien. A feeling of uncertainty about vbat in required of him likevise results from the priamer's early contacts with the 71 Interrogator. Pleas of the prisoner to learn sPL-L-ifitaliy of vbat he lx aeevae and by v are sidestepped by the interrogator. Initially the interrogation is left unstt=- tured. The prisoner is asked to tell. vhy he thigir be in held and vbat he feels he is guilty of. If the prisoner fails to come UP vith SaYthing, he is accused in terms of broad generalities (e.g.., espionage, sabotage., aets of treason against the Mpeople",, etc.). This usually provokes the pris- oner to oom gutement about his activities. If this takes the form of a denial, he is usually sent to isolation an further decreased food rations to 'think over" his crim2es. Isolation appears to be an unusually effie=iow control pressure. lnftriftal differences in psychological reaction to isolation axe very great. Sow incuri&nls &"ear to be able to withstand prolonged periods of isolation vithout del-eteri@mn eftect; vhile a relatively sh2ort period of iso- lation reduces others to the verge of psychosis. Pay- chological reaction varies considerably with the conditions of the isolation cell. Some indivirlm's have ImUcated a strong reaction to the filth and vermin,, although they had negLWble reactions to the isolation itself. Others., how- e"r.. reacted violently to isolation 2in relatively clean cells. t 72 -T'mo;o TIa Pu's nOT-'490TJTI.VJ2 T-ru -',.@uampTtmd TTV JO aoznog 014 ST -101@V90=--4uT OR!:@ '@vq'4- QZTTVOZ O'@ BMT UTq 84V-4 4on B2OOP '@l '-rOl@IBOZznuT OR-4 uodu aourmadep j:o agme 2m=,Ig 'O *UdOTOA--'P ST TvnpTATPuT paTToilimoo --Iql@ 8TTtlanveN "@T TSTO puv gpioil 'rRO 9TIq 'IT '4U--umqvl-o gTq V-AOP 0'4.;AA O'@ P--qsu 'IT zQQOST-zd au 'POTJBT4v9 4TXnu--mm szvaddi jo-4.vgo=--,@4uT --q!@ 90TIvaTNT a 2 r u-; -JTa* P=SPTBUOD Oq qxg?Tu 49q-@ 2uTtnmos JO 3pmM UVO aq Ov UOO'G SY 'ATOLD aTq%uQTO,4.uT aqo@ 3[v,,a6zq o-Y, asTmiAima -.Mg a 0'4 P-10.zOJ ST -zauostzd -.q;L -utvft pxm u.;vft pg,4.,godaz aq uvO 'aOT'@990=al@n BuTrnP uOTBBOJUGo 'a zo,; vpuump 2q!@TA nOT'4vTO,8T JO 9POT.Zad BUT-4.=unTv JO itigooo sTq& -qAZ4AO PUD 9=T,4.Va szvoj -TDTLTlvq PTATA PaUodai i2;,.@oaVqns Tnu=T-ladxa savp JO z PnTuTT AzaA v uvq,@ azon joj gMT-4-OUM aAT,@0;arqns uAo gTq 2uT'@SZOTO-4. JO STqvdvOuT ST TvnPT-AR=T aq!@ Paev=,Qp ATTWT.@V -uneas lusk avq uOT'4vrnmT-18 Ajosues tratin 11,@vq-4. po-:@voTpuT svq q=ws--V 'WWUO Pua IZOsu8s BTq JO OOTIvTrx;-4s TvTWajajjTp 2 JO ImPTATPuT aq% OATzdgP 01. OtrTq=00 TTV "'4.0v@,Wo TVTDOII JO a=lafq'B -aRl- 'PMIO* J:O.'XQVT aW '(142TT JO 3IOmT TVIDI@ zo) STTWL Qq!:4@ JO OSQQ9---a la--@Aa avA 'uOTWrnNT'49 Azoszme JO S(OMT M aq o,4 exuadda WTIovw j.-4Vq aql. ;o -,4mvo --@mogazd aqz TOAL cation that the prisone.L can bave. 'The vhile I trates his unpredietability Be in pereeived by the prisonex as a creature of vhim. At times the inter- rogator e= be pleased very easily and at other times no effort on the part of the prisoner will placate him. The prisoner may begin to channel so sucb energy into trying to predict the behavior of the unpredictable interrogator that he loses track of vhat is happening inside himself. His recognition of dependence upon a relatively 7mpredietable interrogator Is a some of intense Internal conflict. After the prisoner has developed the above PCy-- logical and emotiowl reactions to a sufficient degree., the brain- vashing begins in earnest. First the prisoner's remaining critical faculties must be destroyed. He umdergoes long., fatiguing interrogations vhile looking at a bright light. Be is called back again and again for interrogations after sleep. Drugs my be used to accentuate his mood swings. Be develops depression vhe6n the interrogator is being kind and becomes euphoric vben the interrogator is threatening the direct penalties. And then the cycle in reversed. The prisoner finds himself in a constant state of anxiety vhich prevents him from relskving even vben he is 74 @p qo 43 4H 4-3' 2 k %I 0 q,.4 D 0 0 2 t 1 4 g 43 to to A a 0 0 V t I 2 -P C) a 11 9 2 10 V4 2 g 0 to d to 2 4) 4i +- to (a 0 2 "A R r-i FA 0 2 In *4 Al 49 to P. -on 2 43 to Id i 44 +31 43 0 -1 0 43 43 2 43 40 ci 5 0 o endless argument vith his interrogi&tor. fie my be faced vith the confessions of other individuals vho meoDAborated!' with him in his crims. The pri r serious4 begins to doubt his own newry. This feeling is beightened by his Inability to recall little things like the nanes of 2the people he knoim very well or the date of his birth. The interrogator patiently sharpens this feeling of doubt and vacertainty by a clever line of questioning. For e le, if the goal of the brainvashing is an admission of participation in gerin-vexfam activities., the following questions my be asked inftwssantly: "I)id you personally supervise the loading Of bCabS in your plane? Did you know exactlv vhat vas in each of them? Did you count the explosions of the bombs you dropped? Are you sure? Were you told to hit secondarv taxgei"6 !Z Xuu couldn--L aeblieve vour primary targets? Were You ordered to drop all of your bombs ve3.1-vithin eneaw 2 territor7? Were sow of your explosives of the anti-pervonnel tYPe? Are You sure that nOn of your bombs contained bacuria? If you personally had any objection to the uft of such geru- v8.rfare veapme., do you think your superiors vould have told YM vbat You vere carrying? etc., etc." This line of questio6n- ing,, vhen the 4ndividual has lost most of his critical 76 ILL faculties., tends to ereat a serious state of uncertainty. This has been demonstrated., wben accompanying pressures vere virtually nil, under experimental conditions. 7he prisoner must suffer additional internal conflict vhen strong feelings of guilt are aroused within him. As any clinical psychiatrist is aware., it is not at all difficult to create s2uch feelings. Military personnel a-re particularly vulnerable. No one can morally justify killing even in wartime. The usual justification is on the grounds of necessity or self-defense. 7he interrogator is careful to circumvent such justification. He keeps the interrogation directed tovards the prisoner's personal moral code. (Why is the prisoner personally killing civilians and troops who h2ave never done anything to him? Did he personally vant to fight this war, or vas he drafte&?) Every moral vulnerability is exploited. (Wv does the prisoner feel about the fact that the weapons of war cannot be sufficiently' controlled to guarantee the killing only of soldiers? Or did the "Arm yank rs" desiga them that vay? Does the prisoner really believe in fi&ting to su3pport colou'AIim? Would the prisoner feel any obligation to support his country if an attack vere =ad upon Heidco? How is this different from the Cbin Be position in Korea? What does the prisoner feel about the fact that the U.S. vas the first to utilize nuclear weapons in 77 ooppl- varfare? DDes the prisoner support wholeheartedly all the policies of his goverment? :If not, doesn't this war support some of the policies he does not approve? Is the prisoner a Christian? DDes Christianity condone slaughter of the type meted out by air bombings?) Incessant questioning of this type tends to arouse many doubt2s based upon irrational guilt feelings. 7be prisoner begins to question the very fundamentals of his own value-system. One brainwashed priest reported that after interrogation he really beg= to feel intense guilt about the very missionary work to which he bad devoted his entire life. Constantly., the prisoner must fight off a potential breakdown. finds that his 2-inA is going blank" for longer and longer periods of time. Be cannot think constructively. If he is to mintain any semblance of psychological integrity., he must bring an end to this state of Interminable internal conflict. Be signifies a willingness to write a confession. If this vere truly the end, no brainwashing would have actually occurred. 22he Individual would simply have "given inn to intoler- able pressure. Actually the finoll stage of the brainwashing process has just begun. No matter vbat the pr:i r writes In his confession, the Interrogator is not satisfied. 2be interrogEL- +.or questions every sentence,, ever7pbraseof the confession9. Be begins to edit vbile working with the prisoner. 7be prisoner is 78 ;!7 IM7 COWMVte forced to argue age-ir-st every change, every ApwmlnA for inereeaed self-incrimination. 7his is the very essence of brajmwashing! The prisoner has begun to argue__for maintaining statements that he would not have accepted prior tc, the ecmmncement of brain- vasbing. Ever2y time that he gives in on a point to the interro- gator., he must rewrite his whole confession.* Still the Interrogator is not satisfied. In a desperate attempt to maintain some omblance of integrity and to avoid further brainvashing, the prisoner zust.begin to argue that what he has already confessed is true. He begins to accept as his ovn the statements he has 2written- Subtly, step by step, he has identified with a new value-system. The prisoner uses many of the interrogator's earlier arguments to buttress his position. He believes what he has stated. By this process identification with the interrogator's *Tj',.at "simple Pavlovian conditioning" accounts for what occurs in the final stages of brainwashing is a common misconception.2 The major si-il ity between vhat happens to Pavlov's dog and vhat happens in brainvas-hing lies in the preparation of the dog for the conditioni experiment. can be likened w-leb more fruitfully to the more complex concept of "instrumental which requires that the avoidance cond:Ltionin 2 "discover a solution to avoid pain. It is much more difficult to "de-condition" an animal that has learned in this vay. Actually brainwashing requires a creative act of learning (internal re- Fmnization of the thought processes) on the part of the brainwash-victim. 'This does Dot imply that he could '%elp' learning any more than the child can "help" 4learning that fire is hot and should be avoided. 79 value-system becomes ccmplete. it is extremely important to recognize that a qualitative change has taken place within the prisoner. The brainvash-victim does not consciously change ble value-system; rather the change occurs despite his efforts. He is nc more responsible for this change than is an individual vbo "2omps" and becomes psychotic. And like the psychotic, the prisoner :La not even aware of the transition. An interesting point is raised by the behavior of returned pr:ieoners-of-war who bad been brainwashed during the Korean conflict. Some of these individuals stood court-mrtial; others vere vilified in the press. One vonderr, vhy they did mn eV, "I was br2ainwashed I believed at the time vhat I said over the racUo",, in their own defense. Apparently they could not 1 Ai Ti clearly wbat happened to them. One vonders if this imbility to cammicate their experience is related to & Most interesting psychiatric finding that it is virtually impossible for a recovered schizophrenic to tell vh2at a psychotic "8t4Lte" is All that he can say is that it is mimglmbly horrible- Ocne Of the brainwashed have characterized their own experiences as 'indescribable". Aftermath Since the changed value-o"tem of the braimmsh-victim has developed in a severely controlled environment vben his critical 80 judgment vas at Its nadi it can be considered, in a sense, like and "enforced schizophrenia". 'The victim literally liforgets" m=y of the events that occurred during the brainwashing process. If owh an analogy is useful,, it could be predicted that the brainmah-victim., once freed from oppressive controls and having 2 recovered his critical faculties,, would undergo a spontaneous reintegration and recovery vith the passage of tim. This appears to be the case. Accompanying this recovery of a'value-system more consistent with his beliefs prior to brainwashing is the gradual recall of the various aspects of the brainwashing process itself. 0 81